Lesson One ~ A Snapshot of the Early Insular Celts
We cannot discuss the Druids without also exploring the Celts themselves. Who were these tribal peoples who have captured the imaginations of so many people today? A widely held theory, favoured by historians like Dr Anne Ross and Peter Beresford Ellis, holds that, at some point in the distant past, groups of early Celts swept across Europe. They settled in various locales en route before ultimately reaching Britain and Ireland. Their priestly caste, the druids, went with them. When they arrived in Britain they found small native tribes, descendants of the builders of Stonehenge etc, and either killed or intermarried with them.
Alternative theories of British history, as put forward by historians like Simon James and Barry Cunliffe, allow for migrations across the Continent but suggest a different account for Britain itself. They suggest that Britain and Ireland were not actually invaded by large waves of Continental Celts at all. Rather, the old native Bronze Age tribes simply evolved more and more complex societies. A small number of Celtic traders may have moved here (and native Britons gone over to the Continent), exchanging ideas, technologies and religious/cultural beliefs in the process. However, this was done on a largely friendly basis, rather than as a mass invasion. This theory implies that the British tribes are actually much older than previously suggested. Which of these theories (if either) you choose to believe, is entirely up to you.
Julius Caesar, Pliny and a number of other Classical writers, suggested that Britain was the home of the Druids’ religion, and that Continental Celts sent their sprogs to Britain in order to learn to be Druids. This has always seemed rather odd, if Britain (as often supposed) was the last place the Celts got to, and therefore the place where Druidism was actually youngest. However, if we suppose that the migration of religious ideas actually went in the opposite direction then it makes a little more sense. This would accord with Pliny’s claim that Druidism originated in Britain. It is an intriguing possibility that the Druid religion may have been about the only one to evolve from Britain’s soil. In a future lesson we will look in more depth at what Druids were historically, and what they might be today.
It is worth bearing in mind that the tribes of Britain never actually called themselves ‘Celts’, or felt any great loyalty to each other. The word Celt derives from the Greek word Keltoi, and was used alongside the term Galatae ~ a title favoured by a number of continental tribes. The old tribes were independent entities, with their own languages, styles of dress, types of food etc, but united by a common religion. Just as in medieval Europe there were lots of rival nations (French, German, Italian etc.) who were all under the sway of the Roman Catholic Church. The druids were expected to be free of tribal loyalties. This is shown in the story of Amergin being expected to make a judgement about the divisions of Ireland between his own tribe (the Milesians) and that of the de Danann tribe. He was warned that if his judgement was unfairly biassed towards his blood relatives, he would be killed.
Given that each tribe was different in subtle ways, it is hard to make broad descriptions that would have been true of all the British tribes. What we do know comes to us partially from the writings of rather condescending Greeks and partially from hostile Roman authors (hostile initially because the Gauls invaded Rome in about 390 bce, later because the Romans themselves were invading Gaul and Britain).
Most Classical writers generally describe the ‘barbarian tribes’ as having a warrior aristocracy, which included warrior women, that ruled over small rural tribes that formed constantly shifting alliances with each other. The religious castes are accredited with considerable social influence, even to the point of being able to make or break kings, start or end wars. These tribes were inclined to such shocking (by Greek standards) behaviours as head hunting, dyeing and spiking their hair into wild styles, heavy drinking and feasting, bragging and boasting, promiscuity and extreme vanity in both sexes. Tattoos were popular, such that the Romans called the Cruithne tribe ‘Picts’, meaning Painted People. Permanent tattoos are a means of both decoration and communication in various cultures around the world ~ different designs acting like badges to declare such things as status, tribal alliance, marriage, number of children etc. Temporary tattoos, painted on with woad, are used like talismans and can impart protection in battle, courage, aid from a particular spirit etc. This is a magical art being rediscovered by followers of Celtic religion today.
They were also very honourable and, once giving their word, would stick to it. Caesar says he was surprised that the Druids would pile up great mounds of treasure after a battle, as an offering to the Gods ~ but would not leave anyone to guard the treasure, because none of the tribe would even dream of stealing it. Reputation was very important, and effected social standing. Tribesmen wanted to be thought of as courageous, loyal, wise, honest, generous and just. To be regarded as cowardly, tight-fisted or dishonest could lead to a person losing all status, and even being driven out of the tribe.
Most of the commentators describe the British religious caste has having three major subsets, that of Druid, bard (called draoi and fili in Ireland) and ovate (called faith in Ireland). The druids served as priests, officiating at religious ceremonies and interceding with the gods on behalf of the tribe. They also served as advisors to kings and powerful aristocrats, giving guidance upon matters of law, morality, politics and general matters of state. Many tales impart to them considerable magical abilities and a great knowledge of medicine, surgery and herbal lore.
The bards of Wales and filidh of Ireland were poets and storytellers. While this may not sound very impressive, it must be borne in mind that they were in effect walking libraries. They were expected to know vast numbers of myths and religious tales, to remember the histories of the tribes amongst which they lived, to have an in depth knowledge of the genealogies of the monarchs they served. In the days before TV, a bard could serve as a wonderful PR man, singing the virtues of a chief to all and sundry.
The ovate class were regarded as chiefly concerned with divination and prophecy. The techniques used are varied. Some writers describe them as studying bird flight and cloud patterns, and they might also have used the ogam, an alphabet full of symbolism and poetic imagery. A number of myths refer to ogam being used in a magical context.
The Book of Ballymote, some parts of which can be dated to the 5th century (when Ireland was just beginning to convert to Christianity), describes these filidh as having seven grades or ranks. On reaching the highest rank of Ollamh the poet was expected to know many hundreds of myths, poems, verse metres and so on.
In Ireland there survives a strong body of myths about five great tribes of supernatural beings who held sway before the coming of mortal kind. Most of these clans remain rather shadowy, but one remains particularly prominent in the surviving tales. The Tuatha de Danann, the People of the Goddess Danu. They form a sprawling, and frequently brawling, tribe. Amongst their number can be found the extremely popular Bride (also called Brigit), a ferocious warrior woman and patroness of agriculture, healing and black-smithing… The gentle swan god Oenghus Mac Og, giver of love and romance … And Ogma, patron of filidh and giver of eloquence, poetry and the magical ogham alphabet. In Welsh lore they are called the Plant Don, meaning the Children of the goddess Don.
The ancient Britons were polytheists who perceived their deities as unique and individual. They did not see their Gods as all-powerful, but as great spirits whose good will could be won in exchange for honourable service and the performance of rituals. They also believed in many other types of spirit, such as the ancestors and animal spirits. Though they did have some temples, most of their rituals were performed outdoors in places of great beauty.
Over the next 19 lessons, we will look at how they performed rituals, what they believed about their Gods, how those spirits can guide us today, matters of morality and ethics etc. The stance of these lessons will be a polytheist one, which means that they will be written from the viewpoint that the Gods (and other spirits) are real, not symbols or aspects of some greater godhead. It is not our belief that all goddesses are One Goddess, though we respect those who do hold such views. You do not have to be a polytheist to gain some benefit from the lesson plan.
The lessons work best if you take them slowly, and spend time reflecting on the issues raised before progressing to the next.
Some questions for you to think about:
What are the popular images (good and bad) associated with the Celtic countries and peoples? What feelings do these images evoke for you?
The land mass now called England was once inhabited by Celtic peoples, yet we no longer think of it as Celtic. Genetic tests have shown that quite a few people who consider themselves English are descendants of the Iron Age tribes. What are the factors that form or challenge both personal and national identity? What makes a person Celtic? Is it being descended from a particular bloodline, or being able to speak one of the languages, or having been raised within a certain culture, or having a spiritual relationship with certain Gods or spirits? Is a combination of two or more of these factors, or something else entirely?
A practical task:
Try to find out something about the tribe that occupied the place you live in during the Iron Age. There may be items in local museums to look at, old hill forts you could visit, or books to read about any of the more prominent members of your local tribe.