The 400 or so gods and goddesses of British and Gaulish (including Irish) tradition.
Foreword
Hopefully you come to this article via the previous introduction. That being so, we may say the Universal Energy, the Popeth, the All, manifests itself as a Universal Consciousness and we acknowledge that as a fragment of the ongoing ‘rolling creation’, it is totally impossible for us to even begin to comprehend what the ‘thoughts’ of the universe might be, as they are vast beyond the understanding of all humans in all time.
What we are easily able to comprehend are the glimpses that manifest themselves through the action of the natural world or the discord that is caused by our disrupting the ebb and flow of the natural way. We quantify the scientific laws and principles of the physical mechanics of the natural world, often misusing that knowledge to make happen what should not happen. Our knowledge of the spiritual realms is limited to vague descriptions and ‘feelings’ about the emotional and mental encounters of individuals. The laws of science – that happenings should be accurately described and reproduced by anyone – cannot apply because everyone is different. We have basic emotions that all share, but they manifest themselves according to original experience. Our complex emotions can only be described according to the norms of culture that we grew up in.
The ancients glimpsed these ‘personalities’ of the universe according to their experience, rules and understanding, ascribing them names, qualities and rituals for communication. This work concentrating on the British-Gaulish pantheon although many cultures have observed the links between attributes and attributed their own names to the personalities. In old traditions with a literature, such as Roman, Greek, Hindu and Norse, deities are described in detail as are their correct ways of communicating with, honouring or otherwise interacting with them. Whilst studying these, always remember that The Ancient Way understands these to be ‘facets’ or ‘aspects’ of a vast ‘whole’, the spiritual and physical Universe.
Comparatively, in the seemingly monotheistic Abrahamic faiths, ‘El’, the desert god, has many personalities. In Judaism, there are 15 names of YHWH. The Tetragrammaton (the Four Letters) may not be pronounced, since in Abrahamic magic, spiritual power is in the words and to pronounce the name of the god is to claim power over him, which cannot be forgiven and receives devastating retribution. From that Jewish base, Christianity has added the trinity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit plus three more Greek names. Then the sub-gods: Mary ‘Mother of God’ – who some seem to spend more time praying to than the main attraction – and the 10,000+ saints who ‘intercede’ when their omnipotent God (presumably) can’t be bothered, is too busy or is just watching someone’s life wash down the pan. In Islam, there are 100 names of Allah, which are recited.
It is clear that the Celtic peoples did not regard their gods in the same way that the Romans or the Greeks understood theirs:
“Brennus, the king of the Gauls, on entering a (Greek) temple found no dedications of gold or silver, and when he came only upon images of stone and wood he laughed at them, to think that men, believing that gods have human form, should set up their images in wood and stone.” – Diodorus Siculus, Book XXII, 9.2-5
The characters of the Celtic pantheon embody qualities of the All (the Popeth, the Universal spirit that is Everything) and their mirror images, human frailties to be overcome. These are illustrated in the old tales, which cut truths into easy bite-sized pieces helping us to a greater understanding of how to lead lives with honour, empathy and to build a respectful relationship with the bionetwork, and its spirit, that we are all part of. The natural universe is never to be underestimated nor its inhabitants viewed with a cutesy anthropomorphism.
As to gender, the ancients usually saw gods as male or female, but their definitions were strictly biological as roles and attributes were very flexible unlike later societies. All ‘male’ gods had ‘female’ aspects, so fluidity is key to understanding and relating to them. The classics commented regularly on this, e.g., “But as for their (Gauls) custom relating to the men and the women (I mean the fact that their tasks have been exchanged, in a manner opposite to what obtains among us),” Strabo, Geographia, Book 4, Chapter IV, section 3.
The linking of the personalities concentrates on the qualities, attributes, areas of concern and apparent responsibility rather than only etymological similarity. Hence, although “Brigantia” and “The Mórrígan” (both meaning “Great Queen”) are often cited to be the same, their qualities are very different. It is thus unlikely that they are the same deity. Here, “The Mórrígan” is linked to “Andraste” as they are strikingly similar in involvements.
We also consider the nature of ‘deity’. Animistically, we are understood to be linked fragments of The All. Deities are also this, but they are immense spiritual beings compared with us. This where the danger can lie. Think of them as icebergs, ‘calved’ (the correct term for icebergs) off of the vast glacier of the All. This “iceberg” may land on our desert, irrigating our crops and give us cool, fresh water for life, or it may slam into our pleasure liner and sink us and our loved ones without trace in the middle of the ocean. Gods are jealous, argumentative and change their minds – easy to annoy and slow to forgive. We must be very careful when working with them. Just in passing, they can easily do immense damage in their wake without noticing. Or immense blessings and good fortune.
First, we identify the prime movers and shakers of the ‘Celtic’ faith, linking them to the old and later understandings:
Taranis the Thunderer, Lord of Fertility, holds the Thunder Wheel (many Bronze and Iron Age roads were made of heavy wooden sections and a chariot wheel makes a rumble like thunder when rolling across them). He represents The Realm of Sky which comprises the sky, the sun, the moon, the light, the winds and the rain. This Realm fertilises the Earth, our fields, the forests, with the sperm of the sun, lightning. The energy (heat) of lightning plasma causes nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O), in air and rain, to fracture and recombine to form ammonia (NH3) and nitrates (NO3). Rain carries the ammonia and nitrates to the ground, where they can be assimilated by the plants. The ancients noticed the lushness of the plants where lightning regularly struck and the fatness of the animals that grazed there. Even today, farmers will encourage a single “lightning tree” to grow in a field in the hope of getting a free feed. The thunder god is always responsible for fertility.
At night, the sister of the sun shines her light and her passing controls the tides, the winds and the dance of the continents. The Sun and the Moon proclaim the Seasons and the passage of time. The air that we breathe gives us life and our last breath signifies the departure of life. Taranis’ envoys are the zigzagged adder whose movement and markings represent lightning, flattery and satire; the lynx, unraveller of hidden truths and possessor of great skills; and the wren, messenger of the gods. The Druids have a special link to Taranis – they were known as Nadredd, Nathracha and Nadres – adders, in the various British languages, and Mogh Ruith’s name, the famous chief Druid, meant ‘Servant of the Wheel’. Other male personalities are Belenos (also Belenus, Belinus, Bel, Beli Mawr), fire god and driver of the chariot of the sun, who also heals in springs, Ambisagrus, the weather deity who controls the rain, wind, hail and fog, and Lugos/ Lugh/ Lleu called the “Shining One” as a solar god, or Lámhfhada (“Long Arm”) a patron of archers and spear throwers (because of lightning) also Lleu Law Gyffes (Lleu of the Skilful Hands) because of the endless talents he possesses – arts, crafts, healing abilities, prophecy.
The primary female aspect of this personality is Rhiannon/ Epona/ Rigantona, golden beauty whose mighty horses draw the Chariot of the Sun. The rolling wheels thunder from the heavens. Goddess of Love, Partnering, Patience and Fortitude, Lady of the Cornfield. Her envoys are singing birds and horses, and she is often depicted as a white horse. Other personalities are Belisama, a sky goddess of fire, the forge, crafts and illumination, and Nantosuelta, goddess of nature, fire and fertility, wife to Sucellos, a hammer-wielding sky god. Nantosuelta’s envoys are bees, especially as a hive. Rigantona’s heroine is Gwenhwyfar/ Guinevere (‘White Sorceress’), a memory of an ancient British goddess transformed into a legendary figure and, giving the clue to ‘Celtic’ deity , there are three of her with the same name, all married to Arthur.
Esus, the Woodsman, Lord of the Forest, represents The Realm of the Earth. Dark world below us that yield the gifts of flint, quartz, metals, rock to build with and soil that makes our crops grow. Land and planet; that which is stable, which we make our homes on; medium for food. We are of the Earth and we return to the Earth. The Earth gives forth water, which shapes the land. We are born from water. Water can take life and destroy the things of the land. Deep dark water takes tributes to the Divine and brings messages from them to us. This god is also Cernunnos, antlered stag, horned bull, vigorous, sexual, source of wisdom to Myrddin and link to Annwyn. Also, as Smertrios, the Provider, who gifts the wild bounty from woodland, hedgerow and plain to us as food and supplies. Envoys are the crane, ferocious and magical, rooster in the trees, healer and wise adviser; the stag, lusty king of the forest; the fox, cunning shapeshifter, fleet master of the forest undergrowth, liminal traveller through the dusk, dawn and the veil, wily adept of satire and wit; the bull, mighty in battle, protector of the herd. The heroic figures attached to Esus are Merlin, Myrddin Wyllt, Wild Merlin of the Woods, “Merlin Sylvestris”, sorcerer, seer, imparter of wise counsel to those in power, and the other “wild men and women”, Suibhne Geilt (Sweeney the Cursed of northeast Ireland), Lailoken (of southern Scotland), Mad Mis (Wild Woman of Corca Dhuibhne, westernmost point of Ireland).
The female aspect of this personality is Brighid (can be pronounced ‘Bry-id’, ‘Brid’, ‘Bride’ or ‘Breet’). She is the High Priestess, The Poet, The Healer, Bringer of Fertility in the springtime. Her envoys are fierce forest creatures – the boar, the wildcat and the owls. Brighid is the Goddess of Spring, poetry, smithing, medicine, arts and crafts, fire, light and dawn, arrows, bells, thresholds and doorways; of all things perceived to be of relatively high dimensions such as high-rising flames, highlands, high spirits and love; and of activities and states conceived as psychologically lofty and elevated, such as wisdom, excellence, perfection, high intelligence, poetic eloquence, craftsmanship, transcendental abilities, Druidic knowledge and military tactics. The female ‘Great Provider’ goddess Rosmerta, who carries an axe and a Butter Churn of Plenty, is another personality of hers, confirming her relationship with Esus/ Smertrios. Also, Flidais – Lady of the Forest, goddess of kine and fertility of wild beasts.
Teutates, Lord of the Tribes, represents and watches over the Realm of the Living. He is a judge, a chief, a CEO, a general and a father. A god of war and of peace, his symbol is the torc (neck ring). Other aspects are Lenus, healing god, bestower of health and good fortune, Caletos, god of harmony, equality and of resistance (Caletos’ symbol is a rock), Arvernus, worshipped in front of alder trees and Belatucadros (also Belatucadrus, Hu Gadarn and Vitucadrus), ‘shining death giver’ or ‘fair slayer’, god of war, champion of the poor and oppressed.
Some of his names are more titular, such as Atepomarus, “The Great Horse”, the horse being representative of kingship in Celtic symbolism and Vellaunus, “chief, commander, leader” who has a direct female aspect, the goddess Icovellauna. Teutates also turns up with local names, linking him to specific tribes. His representative heroes are Arthur, great king, with whom The Ancient Way, life guide of the Druids, is associated, and Gwyddion, cunning enchanter and patron of the arts and education. Envoys and symbols are the bear, fierce defender; the goose, watcher of the flock; the eagle, fierce far-seer and possessing the wisdom of the Ancestors.
The main female aspect of this personality is Andraste (Aerten, Agrona, Andred, Andarte), The Victorious, Spirit Queen, Queen of Nightmares. She is strong, merciless in battle, gifted with foresight and mother to the tribes. Her envoys are the crows and ravens (ever present at battlefields and finders of plunder such as gold and gems), the wolf (cunning, organised and vengeful warrior), the hare (supernaturally quick and gazer into the Otherworlds), the eel (moves between the Realms and ferocious in attack) and cattle (representing wealth and land).
In the Iron and Bronze Ages, to swear loyalty, one sucked the nipple of a chief – the chief ‘feeds’ his or her people by their leadership. Chiefs who failed to produce victory were mutilated during their executions by having their nipples cut off and chests cut through. In defeat by Boudica, the Roman women of Londinium had their breasts cut off and nipples sewn to their mouths (before being impaled on stakes – a sacrifice to Lugh ‘on his spear’). To foretell the outcome of battles, captured warriors were stabbed in the chest, front or back, with a bronze axe or wide-bladed knife/ sword; the blood spurts and dying spasms then ‘read’ by the nobles and druids. The chest was thus the site of an Andraste-dedicated killing wound.
The Irish sagas call her The Mórrígan, a goddess with triple aspects. In the Irish tradition, her aspects are Macha, “Sun of Womanfolk”, revenger of wronged women; Nemain, “wrath, nemesis” and “venom to the enemy”; and Anu or Anand, “mother goddess” (known in later British tradition as Black Annis). The Mórrígan has the human envoys of Mór Mumain (“the Great Mother”)/ Mugain and Mad Mis, a Myrddin Wyllt figure with a similar story (she was sent mad by war, became a poet, seer and at one with the natural world). Mad Mis is also an Esus/ Cernunnos/ Smertrios hero.
Another personality is Nemetona, goddess of the Holy Groves, supporter of conversation between gods and people, also known as Blodeuwedd. Dahut / Dahud-Ahes, is of this Realm, she is the goddess of sensual pleasure, gift of the gods to be celebrated.
Arawn is Lord of Annwn, the underworld and thus the Realm of the Ancestors. The underworld is not a place of misery and punishment, it is a place of contentment where the recently departed may sojourn, resting before their next lives (as animists believing in metempsychosis would have). The Otherworld of the Ancestors is also described as islands, “beyond the ninth wave”, “of the ever-young”, and other names – a place beyond the Realm of the Living. It is understood as here too, out of sight, through the veil. Arawn is also Gwyn ap Nudd (son of Nuada/ Nodens, the sea god), who had the dihenydd (judgement, fate) passed on him at Bealtaine. As Vindos, he rides forth at night accompanied by the pale Cwn Annwn, the pack of Otherworld hunting hounds, and transports the dying souls away. He has a special relationship with the Coblynau (goblins, who dwell under the earth and warn miners of pit collapse, “the Tommyknockers”). Arawn has a polar opposite, Hafgan.
Julius Caesar seemed to refer to Taranis as “Dis Pater”, the Roman god of the underworld, but probably got Taranis and Arawn mixed up. The Romans equated another aspect of Arawn, Arubianus/ Arubinus, with Jupiter, the senior Roman deity, in his protective capacity. Taranis is the senior Celtic god so the confusion may have happened there. Arawn is also sometimes confused with Esus/ Cernunnos because of the hunting association. His hero / envoy is Pwyll, prince of Dyfed, who marries Rhiannon, sun goddess. In the Middle Ages, Arawn morphed into yr Angau (an Ankow, Ankou), depicted as a skull faced figure in a black cowl who carries a scythe, popularly now the figure of Death.
Arawn’s female personalities are Ruad, a powerful and seductive goddess of the Underworld, fond of beautiful music. She is also aspected as the tall, beautiful river goddess Bébinn (Bé Binn / Bévinn / Béfionn), the “melodic woman”, sister of Boann. As Annea Clivana, she dwells in the spirit realms, linking to spirits of place giving them strength to message, and for good and ill to be wrought. Annea is also a vector for fertility to farmland, protection, gives wise counsel to the state and will shield women from oppression.
As Afallach/ Avalloc, the son of Beli Mawr (Belenos), in the Welsh Triads (no.70), Arawn is the father of the goddess Modron (Matrona) so father of ‘The Mother’. She is ‘Mother’ of Mabon, ‘The Son’. There is a continuity cycle implicit in this that seems to be a transmigration of spirit (rebirth) sequence. A reading of the myth of Er the Pamphylian in Plato’s Republic (also a core legend of the Magi) and a study of the Stonehenge Landscape pilgrimage may be helpful here.
Great national heroes (who are our heroes? why?) with ancestors of spirit and blood are venerated to channel and honour the spirit world, repository of wisdom and knowledge from the experience of millennia. We seek their advice for foresight, justice and social cohesion. We pass in and out of this Realm, travel to join the Ancestors, sojourning there and gaining strength from the Everlasting All, at One with all that has been and will be, until this world draws us back ready to join the dance of life again. The Ancestors venerated and sought rebirth as the great fierce spirit animals – the bear, the wolf, the eagle, the bull. The salmon represented wisdom, and the otter and the eel transition between both land and water so are also envoys for the Ancestor Realm. To this, today we add the dove, the butterfly, the hare, the owl and the dolphin as representing peace, beauty, foresight and wisdom.
The Realm of the Living is here. We stand looking through the doorway to this Realm and see the other three. We commune with the other Realms and return. On our passing, we travel through the doors, rest with the Ancestors, then return to our next lives. Teutates-Andraste governs the tribes of the living. We interact daily with other gods – Nudons (m. the sea), Modron (f. harvest/ mother), Amaethon (m. farming), Nemetona (f. holy groves) – who have direct influence on our day-to-day important interactions with the natural world and each other.
There are also the spirits of nature and place from Annwvyn, the Otherworld, that is also here: the Tylwyth Teg – the ‘Fair Folk’ / ‘Good Neighbours’ (‘fairies’), Ellyllon – the elves, Dweorgi – dwarves, Pwcai – both helpful and mischievous, Coblynau – goblins of the underground, Bwbachod – the household brownies, the Gwragedd Annwn – water folk of the lakes and streams, the Gwyllion – mountain ‘night-wanderers’, Cewri – giants, Cwn Annwn – the hunting hounds of the Otherworld and the Ysbrydion – spirits of the Ancestors (who visit on Samhain within the Atgofion – everlasting memories).
Though named and very different, all are aspects of the Sentient Universe, however, being somewhat limited ourselves, it is simpler to interact with one characteristic at a time. If several aspects are needed for guidance or to restore what has been lost, then the Ancient Way acknowledges the spirit world’s connectedness and shows how combined aspects can be hailed and accessed through the ‘triple god’ system under which the aspects of up to eighteen gods, out of any of the four Realms can be invoked.
The scene, from the Gundestrup Cauldron, illustrates the relationships between the Gods and the Ancestors. The primary deity depicted is known as Cernunnos – the Horned God, who is also Esus – the Woodsman, and Smertrios – the Provider (ref. Pillar of the Boatmen). Cernunnos’ female personalities, by aspect, are thus Rosmerta – the Provider, Flidais – Lady of the Forest, and Brighid – The Poet, Healer, Goddess of the Higher Skills.
Gundestrupkedlen- 00054 (cropped), National Museum of Denmark, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.
So the person of Esus (called Cernunnos in this form), Lord of the Earth Realm, holds the Torc (tribal neck ring), representing Teutates, Lord of the Tribes, and the Ram-Horned Snake, a manifestation of Taranis, Fertile Thunder God and Lord of the Sky Realm (the Ram-Horned Serpent is phallic, moves in a zigzag fashion and flies, evoking lightning, as can be seen in other panels of the cauldron).
The Gundestrup craftsmen, probably by commission, combines the Cernunnos aspect (wildness, dominance) with the Teutates (tribal unity aspect) and the Taranis (fertility, lightning strike and magic aspect) personalities, in communion with great Ancestors, for a message for the nation/ tribe commanded by the owner. With each ‘god’ having at least three personalities and each of those mirrored by a female form, a ‘triple god’ invoked thus has the strength of eighteen ‘deities’ focussed on the intention.
The purpose of the cauldron is now believed to be for the collection of bull’s blood. A bull was a great emblem of personal wealth. The capacity of the cauldron is generally agreed at 110 litres (it was dismantled, with a few pieces missing) and the average volume of blood of bull breeds of that time would be about 55 litres, matching uncannily with Pliny’s account below of two bulls sacrificed. From the artwork, almost certainly at Samhain, at night as blood appears a deep oily black in moonlight, viscous – so without ripples, perfect for black pool gazing and revelation. The Druids called out to the power of The All:
“Hailing the moon in a native word that means ‘healing all things’, they prepare a ritual sacrifice and banquet beneath a tree and bring up two white bulls, whose horns are bound for the first time on this occasion. A priest arrayed in white vestments climbs the tree and with a golden sickle cuts down the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloak. Then finally they kill the victims, praying to God to render his gift propitious to those on whom he has bestowed it.”
Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, Liber xvi. sect. 95 (trans. John Bostock, 1855, Loeb)
Pliny, or his source, misunderstood though. Using modern Welsh to illustrate, the present day version of the old tongue, “healing all things” is “iacháu pob peth”. The Druids at this ceremony were looking up at the vastness of the moon and the stars, calling, “iacháu Y Popeth”, to “The Everything that heals” for guidance, the All, the Universe, the Popeth, and then scrying for answers in the cauldron of bull’s blood, deep, still and black under the moonlight. Today, nothing is killed and dark water is used for this.
Interestingly, here, the Gundestrup snake is speckled not zigzagged, as in the rest of Europe, where the Nadredd (adder, Vipera berus berus) is the envoy of Taranis. This is a partial proof that the cauldron was made in the Balkans, where the holy snake is the non-venomous Aesculapian snake (Zamenis longissimus), one of the largest European snakes which, in the Balkans, as in Greece, is associated with healing (e.g., seen curling round the staff of the Greek god of medicine, Asclepius).
Speaking to Cernunnos/ Taranis/ Teutates are the Stag and the Wolf, powerful envoys such as a warrior might want to be reborn as, the Aurochs (huge wild bulls), the Lion (or Lynx) and others surround them. The Stag indicates his age and wisdom by the number of tines on his antlers – there are more than Cernunnos has by one. However, Cernunnos may still be older as elderly stags begin to produce antlers of diminishing numbers of tines as their testosterone levels drop. This is not seen often nowadays as estates sell the shooting rights to their most impressively antlered stags for many thousands of pounds to Japanese businessmen and American dentists as soon as their breeding supremacy comes to an end.
We cannot tell if the Stag and the Wolf are advising the deities, receiving counsel or interceding on the behalf of their living families or tribes but all are possible. The gods can be present in one personality or separately and the embodiments of the Realms advise each other – and thus can disagree. We cannot predict their choices and actions (although intent and forewarning can be asked for specific matters) but we can hope to influence favourably through living and acting in a way pleasing to our chosen sponsors. The guide for personal flourishing, “The Ancient Way”, gives us direction for this without being prescriptive. Saluting the gods and their Realms on the festivals, with appropriate offerings and personal sacrifice, is also agreeable as the practice encourages us to concentrate on those totemic qualities in our personal lives during those times.
So, these can be our guides, our friends, our watchers, our chastisers, our tools, our base for the complex days ahead. There will be festivals, births, names, joinings, accomplishments and partings to commemorate and bring meaning to. We shall be joyous as we bind with the Realms, we can be supported when we need to take and give comfort.